The Origins and Practice of Medieval Heraldry

I. Arms vs. Heraldry - from ancient to hereditary

• To study heraldry, we first must define it. In both the SCA and mundane heraldic practice, "arms" and "heraldry" are interchangeable.
  • arms/blazon - pictorial identifying devices
  • heraldry - the hereditary inheritance of such devices
• Personal identifiers have been used in war since ancient times. Eagle of Rome, Lion of Judah. Throughout the middle ages, armies use banners so troops can identify where they are suppose to be. Personal symbolism arises from both personal vanity and administrative necessity. But the hereditary passage of arms doesn't occur until the mid-12th century.

II. Origins

1. War
   • John of Guildford, 1394, Tractatus de Armis says, "Why were arms invented? To know one man from another."
   • This is the traditional view - heraldry evolved when the need to recognize soldiers arises - people identified by the arms on their shield during battle.
   • Crusaders multinational forces may have spread the use of heraldry. Arguments against this theory...
   • shields hard to see in battle if not right in front, plus can get dirty or mauled - not a practical solution
   • Many people has identical arms, the earliest rolls of arms in the 13th century have many similar or identical arms.
2. Tourney
   • The Tourney first arises in France in the 11th century, and quickly develop elaborate rules, pageantry and organization.
   • Tournaments become popular by the 12th century with colorful pageantry, and participants taking arms to represent themselves and their parties.
   • Itinerant knights that traveled from tourney to tourney may have helped spread heraldry across Europe
   • by the late 1300's, a title, with arms as proof of that title, is required to participate in tourneys.
3. Platt's Flemish Theory - (Origins of Heraldry, 1980)
   • northern European noble families descended from Charlemagne had hereditary personal symbols for seals and civic use. These families crossed the English Channel with William in 1066 (his army wasn't all Norman, had Flemish and other Norman kingdoms), and their descendants put those symbols on their shields as status symbols. Arguments against this theory...
   • Arms of Boulogne (used as proof) do appear in the Bayeaux Tapestry, but there is no evidence that they are associated with the name.
   • Platt claims arms of Eustace are carries by his sons in the 1st Crusade, but in fact they are not. Eustace's arms show up as the Papal crusader banner of the 13th century, his sons carry something different.
   • Many Flemish counts in the Bayeaux Tapestry bear arms there that are unrelated to the arms recorded 100 years later.
   • While modern scholars disagree with this theory, they say there is possibility of Flemish "clan" influence and bears further research - we will see that her theory comes up later on.

1. Bayeaux Tapestry
   • The Bayeaux Tapestry, while primarily considered proof against an early heraldic date, does seems to suggest some hereditary use by the 11th century, but evidence is scant and fragmentary. If heraldry was in practice at this time, it was in it's most infant stages.
     As evidence against heraldry before 1066:
   • Conventionally, BT provides a terminus ad quem (early date benchmark) for heraldry - it hasn't happened yet
   • At this point, personal arms are still assumes "at will" In one scene, William lifts his visor so his troops know he is alive.
   • During the first crusade, Godfrey de Bouillion does not use the arms that his father, Count Eustace of Boulogne, is depicted with on the Bayeaux Tapestry.
     As evidence for heraldry before 1066:
   • Evidence for heraldry before 1066 comes primarily through the backdating of old Norman families. Of the 30+ arms on the Bayeaux Tapestry, as few do accurately represent the families associated with them (like William Malet). There are also people whose families are known to be at Hastings whose arms appear on the tapestry, but not identified to a specific person.
   • Certain seals and pennants can be dated to very close to the time of the Conquest, and it can be reasoned that some of these individuals or their close ancestors were at Hastings with William.
   • Isabel de Veramndis (chequey), 1118, originally the Warrene arms, still seen today in Norfolk and Surrey
   • Count Hugh II (wheat sheaves), 1103
   • Many other Norman families in the historic record that have established hereditary arms within 150 years of the Bayeaux Tapestry, bear arms represented on the tapestry.
2. The Crusades
   • Anna Comnena, the Byzantine historian (and daughter of the emperor) reports that Frankish shields were plain.
3. Geoffery de Anjou
   • Hereditary arms for the Counts of Anjou as early as 1127.
   • First documentable use if shield in heraldry - when Henry I knights Geoffery, he hangs a shield with his arms around his neck - his family from then on uses those arms. An enameled picture hung over his tomb in 1151 portrays the scene. A bastard grandson, William Longesepee, who dies in 1226 bears similar arms.
4. Seals, Rolls, ect.
   • First seal bearing a heraldic shield seen in 1136.
   • Seals bearing the arms of a king begin with Richard I (1157-1199) of England. Interestingly, he bore just a single lion for most of his life. Arms are still a fluid concept in his time.
   • simple geometric designs were popular at first. Simple symbols, like suns and wheat, may have descended from family symbols of Charlemagne's court (see Platt's theory!)
   • Heraldry homogenous at first, develops regional differences with time (regional design development if we run out of time)
   • Earliest Roll of Arms by Matthew Paris, an English monk, in 1244
   • Seals bearing the arms of a king begin with Richard I (1157-1199) of England. Interestingly, he bore just a single lion for most of his life. Arms are still a fluid concept in his time.
   • Proto-crests, plates attached to helms to deflect blows and painted with arms, appear in Equestrian seals in 1301. Germans have more formal crests by 1309. "Panache" (feathers) appear on rolls in 1350's. Crests granted with titles starting in the late 1400's.
   • Supporters first seen in late 13th century seals.
   • a 1301 letter to the Pope has 96 seals, some with supporters, usually wyverns.
   • some hereditary passing of supporters in the 15th century, first formal grant of supporters with arms in 1508
   • Heraldry as a decorative element dates to 1250's France. Henry III of England goes to a banquet thrown by Louis IX. The walls were hung with the great families of France. Henry was impressed, he copied and expanded the idea.

• By 13th century, the basic language and design rules of heraldry are developing
• Bertholus, 1356, earliest English heraldry scholar. Tractatus de Insignis ed Armis says 2 unrelated people can have the same arms. Shows lack of centralized control.
• Common for second-tier feudal families to bear a variation of the arms of their overlord.
• First incidence of royal involvement in heraldry comes from legal cases: Late 14th century (Richard II, England) legal disputes over arms. Scrope, Grosvenor, and Carminow all have the same arms (azure, a bend or) and find out about it when they serve together during the Crusades. All claim noble ancestry to ancient times. In Scrope vs. Carminow, they are both allowed to keep them because they live so far away from each other it wouldn't really conflict. In Scrope vs. Grosvenor, Grosvenor is offered a white brodure to make his different but refuses. He loses the suit (for know known reason), has to change his arms and pay legal fees. In 1395, Scrope is appointed to oversee a similar case. Such conflicts were common.
• 1418 - Henry V of France declares that men may not assume arms for themselves, and if called upon must present proof of noble ancestry. First occurrence of active royal control.
• Nicholas Upton, 1446, De Studio Militari says there are 4 ways to get arms.
  1. the "best" way and most common, use the arms passed down by your ancestors.
  2. capturing arms in battle - kings and peasants both have the right to take and pass down arms of someone they've captured.
  3. grant from royalty
  4. assume them yourself after being ennobled
• French heralds incorporated in 1406 by Charles VI
• English college of arms founded in 1484
• Visitations begin in England in 1530 (Henry VIII). Royal heralds sent throughout the country to record and register arms, and reproach those who used them without claim. Brings arms completely within control of the king. this persists until 1688 when James II flees. Cannot keep visitation up in the political turmoil.
• Visitations never held in Scotland because of their dangerous royal politics, and the Lyon Herald, founded in the 14th century had little authority. Ironically, in 1672, Scottish parliament gives Lyon legal control over Scottish arms, and it remains one of the strictest heraldic offices today.
• Assumption of arms continues into the 20th century. Assumed arms recorded in English peerage books until 1914, when AC Fox-Davies edits Burke's Peerage and takes out all arms without legitimate grants. Sets the trend for the future.

III. The Herald

• Heralds first thought to be associated with tourneys, often worked freelance, and were considered the same rank as minstrels.
• The herald is a messenger and a maker of proclamations. He knew how to distinguish men in war and tourney, which evolved into a specialty. As arms became more common and entered political protocol, the heralds job became more important.
• 13th c, big households had their own heralds
• 1250 - English documents mention a "King of Heralds" in royal service
• 1290 - Andrew is given the title "North King" - heralds are no longer ranked with entertainers. By 1300's, herald are part of the courtly establishment.
• When COH in England forms in 1484, heralds given privileges, including tax exemption - heralds are full time government employees.
• Visitations begin in England in 1530

• Heralds are official witnesses of knighting before battle, were paid to be legal witnesses
• Herald as messenger - Heralds were granted immunity in war so they could deliver messages to enemy camp. They wore tabards and were unarmed. They were not suppose to reveal what they saw in enemy camp, and might be rewarded by the enemy if they were trustworthy and didn't reveal what they saw
• Heralds tended to pre-battle details: recorded last wishes, took care of valuables, recorded personal characteristics of knights so they could identify the dead.
• July 1173 - a herald observers the battle of Drincourt in Normandy. This is an isolated incident so early in history
• 1346 - Battle of Crecy, a list of French knights who were killed is delivered to the victor, Edward I of England, by 5 herald representing the 5 regions of France.

• Heralds deliver swords and challenges between parties
• Present blazons of knights who are to be judges
• "Cry" the tourney, advertise it throughout the region. Also make announcements during the event - when and where the judges should gather, where the feast will be, evening festivities, ect.
• Record and confirm arms of participants (confirms their noble blood, and worthiness to play)
• Heralds get paid to hand heraldic displays for entourages at the inn they are staying at.
• Identify crests (of participants) to attendant ladies.
• Heralds living expenses are to be paid during the tournament, including those that came with participants.
• Heralds receive horse trappings at the end of the tourney as payment. Also receive money from new knights participating.
• It should be noted that Rene de Anjou still lists the heralds in the same category of the minstrels. It may be that tourney heralds and war heralds, serving different duties, are regarded differently at this time.

• "Heralds" and "heraldry" do not start out as the same thing. Heralds worked closely with nobility handling administration, identification, and protocol on both the battle field and the playing field. As arms became an important part of noble display and a sign of official business, heralds assumed the details of arms along with the rest. As arms evolved into a royal institution, knowledge of arms became so involved that some heralds became specialists in arms and titles alone, thus bringing the two together.